Separate and Combined Effects of Energy Drinks and Alcohol Intake on Exploratory Behaviour of Male Albino Rats
Keywords:
energy drinks, alcohol, exploratory behaviour, spatial learning, Wistar rats, T-mazeAbstract
The increasing concurrent consumption of energy drinks and alcohol raises concerns about their combined effects on learning and exploratory behaviour, yet controlled experimental evidence remains limited. This study examined the separate and combined effects of energy drink and alcohol consumption on exploratory behaviour in male albino Wistar rats using the T-maze paradigm. Twenty-seven rats (160–190 g) were randomly assigned to four groups (n = 7 per group) and orally administered energy drink (Red Bull), alcohol (Smirnoff vodka), a combination of both, or distilled water (control) for 28 days. Exploratory behaviour was assessed using task completion latency. Data were analysed using one-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) followed by Tukey’s honestly significant difference (HSD) post hoc tests, with statistical significance set at p < .05. A significant main effect of treatment was observed, F(3, 23) = 9.349, p < .001, η² = .549, indicating that substance administration accounted for 54.9% of the variance in performance. Rats exposed to alcohol exhibited significantly impaired performance (M = 216.38 s) compared with the control group (M = 113.71 s, p = .001) and the energy drink group (M = 117.75 s, p = .002). No significant difference was observed between the energy drink and control groups (p = .998). The combined energy drink–alcohol group demonstrated intermediate impairment, performing significantly worse than the control (p = .019) and energy drink (p = .028) groups. These findings indicate that chronic alcohol exposure significantly impairs spatial learning and memory, whereas energy drink consumption alone does not markedly influence exploratory performance. Co-administration of energy drinks with alcohol does not mitigate alcohol-induced cognitive deficits, highlighting potential neurobehavioural risks associated with their concurrent use.
References
Arria, A. M., & O’Brien, M. C. (2019). The “high” risk of energy drinks. JAMA, 305(6), 600–601. https://doi.org/10.1001/jama.2011.109.
Baddeley, A. D., & Hitch, G. J. (1974). Working memory. In G. A. Bower (Ed.), The psychology of learning and motivation (Vol. 8, pp. 47–89). Academic Press.
Bandura, A. (1977). Social learning theory. Prentice Hall.
Bawazir, A. E. (2017). Effect of energy drink consumption on neurochemical and histological changes in the brain of rats. Journal of Basic and Applied Zoology, 78, 8. https://doi.org/10.1186/s41936-017-0012-6.
Benson, S., Smith, R., & Johnson, L. (2019). Chronic ethanol exposure and cognitive impairment in rodents: A review. Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews, 102, 123–138. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neubiorev.2019.03.002.
Berridge, C. W., & Waterhouse, B. D. (2003). The locus coeruleus–noradrenergic system: Modulation of behavioral state and state-dependent cognitive processes. Brain Research Reviews, 42(1), 33–84. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0165-0173(03)00143-7.
Bliss, T. V. P., & Collingridge, G. L. (1993). A synaptic model of memory: Long-term potentiation in the hippocampus. Nature, 361(6407), 31–39. https://doi.org/10.1038/361031a0.
Bliss, T. V. P., & Collingridge, G. L. (1993). A synaptic model of memory: Long-term potentiation in the hippocampus. Nature, 361(6407), 31–39. https://doi.org/10.1038/361031a0.
Costa-Valle, M. T., Couto-Pereira, N. S., Lampert, C., Arcego, D. M., Toniazzo, A. P., Limberger, R. P., Dallegra, E., Dalmaz, C., Arbo, M. D., & Leal, M. B. (2018). Energy drinks and their components modulate attention, memory, and antioxidant defences in rats. European Journal of Nutrition, 57(2), 823–835. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00394-017-1522-z.
Curran, C. P., & Marczinski, C. A. (2017). Taurine, caffeine, and energy drinks: Reviewing the risks to the adolescent brain. Nutrients, 9(10), 1114. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu9101114.
Diamond, D. M., Campbell, A. M., Park, C. R., Halonen, J., & Zoladz, P. R. (2007). The temporal dynamics model of emotional memory processing: A synthesis on the neurobiological basis of stress-induced amnesia, flashbulb and traumatic memories, and the Yerkes-Dodson law. Neural Plasticity, 2007, 1–33. https://doi.org/10.1155/2007/60803.
Díaz, A., Costa-Valle, M. T., Arbo, M. D., & Leal, M. B. (2016). Energy drink administration in combination with alcohol causes oxidative stress and inflammatory responses in the hippocampus and temporal cortex of rats. Food and Chemical Toxicology, 92, 1–9. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fct.2016.03.014.
Ennis, Z. N., et al. (2021). Animal models of learning and memory: A translational perspective. Behavioural Brain Research, 402, 113108. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bbr.2020.113108.
Farrant, M., & Nusser, Z. (2005). Variations on an inhibitory theme: Phasic and tonic activation of GABA receptors. Nature Reviews Neuroscience, 6(3), 215–229. https://doi.org/10.1038/nrn1625.
Ferré, S. (2008). An update on the mechanisms of the psychostimulant effects of caffeine. Journal of Neurochemistry, 105(4), 1067–1079. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1471-4159.2007.05196.x.
Ferreira, S., Groenink, L., van der Mark, M., Olivier, B., & Oosting, R. S. (2006). Effect of caffeine on anxiety and locomotor activity in the rat. Psychopharmacology, 185, 114–124. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00213-005-0176-x.
Ferster, C. B., & Skinner, B. F. (1957). Schedules of reinforcement. Appleton-Century-Crofts.
Fredholm, B. B., Bättig, K., Holmén, J., Nehlig, A., & Zvartau, E. E. (1999). Actions of caffeine in the brain with special reference to factors that contribute to its widespread use. Pharmacological Reviews, 51(1), 83–133. https://doi.org/10.1124/pr.51.1.83.
Fredholm, B. B., Bättig, K., Holmén, J., Nehlig, A., & Zvartau, E. E. (1999). Actions of caffeine in the brain with special reference to factors that contribute to its widespread use. Pharmacological Reviews, 51(1), 83–133.
Giles, G. E., Mahoney, C. R., Brunyé, T. T., Taylor, H. A., & Kanarek, R. B. (2012). Differential cognitive effects of energy drink ingredients: Caffeine, taurine, and glucose. Pharmacology Biochemistry and Behavior, 102(4), 569–577. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pbb.2012.07.004.
Hasselmo, M. E. (2006). The role of acetylcholine in learning and memory. Current Opinion in Neurobiology, 16(6), 710–715. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conb.2006.09.002.
Heckman, M. A., Sherry, K., & Gonzalez de Mejia, E. (2019). Energy drinks: An assessment of their market size, consumer demographics, ingredient profile, functionality, and regulations. Comprehensive Reviews in Food Science and Food Safety, 9(3), 303–317. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1541-4337.2010.00111.x.
Kandel, E. R., Koester, J. D., Mack, S. H., & Siegelbaum, S. A. (2021). Principles of neural science (6th ed.). McGraw-Hill.
Koob, G. F., & Volkow, N. D. (2016). Neurobiology of addiction: A neurocircuitry analysis. The Lancet Psychiatry, 3(8), 760–773. https://doi.org/10.1016/S2215-0366(16)00104-8.
Krahe, T. E., Clark, M. M., & Smith, D. L. (2017). Energy drink consumption with alcohol increases motor impairment and anxiety-like behaviour in adolescent mice. Behavioural Brain Research, 329, 105–112. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bbr.2017.04.039.
Krahe, T. E., et al. (2017). Effects of energy drinks combined with ethanol on adolescent mouse behavior. Physiology & Behavior, 180, 87–96. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.physbeh.2017.08.007.
Lovinger, D. M., White, G., & Weight, F. F. (1989). Ethanol inhibits NMDA-activated ion current in hippocampal neurons. Science, 243(4899), 1721–1724. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.2545789.
Marczinski, C. A., & Fillmore, M. T. (2006). Clubgoers and their trendy cocktails: Implications of mixing caffeine and alcohol. Alcoholism: Clinical and Experimental Research, 30(4), 598–604. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1530-0277.2006.00069.x.
Marczinski, C. A., & Fillmore, M. T. (2014). Energy drinks mixed with alcohol: What are the risks? Nutrition Reviews, 72(Suppl. 1), 98–107. https://doi.org/10.1111/nure.12117.
Marczinski, C. A., & Fillmore, M. T. (2014). Energy drinks mixed with alcohol: What are the risks? Advances in Nutrition, 5(1), 98–105. https://doi.org/10.3945/an.113.005611.
Morris, R. (1984). Developments of a water-maze procedure for studying spatial learning in the rat. Journal of Neuroscience Methods, 11(1), 47–60. https://doi.org/10.1016/0165-0270(84)90007-4.
Pascual, M., Blanco, A. M., Cauli, O., Miñarro, J., & Guerri, C. (2007). Intermittent ethanol exposure induces inflammatory brain damage and causes long-term behavioural alterations in adolescent rats. European Journal of Neuroscience, 25(2), 541–550. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1460-9568.2006.05298.x.
Pascual, M., Boix, J., Felipo, V., & Guerri, C. (2007). Repeated alcohol administration during adolescence causes persistent behavioral alterations and hippocampal neurodegeneration in rats. European Journal of Neuroscience, 25(4), 1197–1204. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1460-9568.2007.05341.x.
Peacock, A., Bruno, R., & Martin, F. H. (2012). The subjective physiological, psychological, and behavioral risk-taking consequences of alcohol and energy drink co-ingestion. Alcoholism: Clinical and Experimental Research, 36(11), 2008–2015. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1530-0277.2012.01825.x.
Petribu, B. N., et al. (2023). Alcohol mixed with energy drinks: Neurobehavioral effects and public health implications. Frontiers in Behavioral Neuroscience, 16, 1100608. https://doi.org/10.3389/fnbeh.2022.1100608.
Petribu, K., et al. (2023). Combined effects of energy drinks and ethanol: Behavioral and neurochemical outcomes in rodent models. Behavioural Brain Research, 452, 114857. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bbr.2023.114857.
Pozdnyakova, E., et al. (2025). Chronic caffeine consumption and spatial memory deficits in rodents: Dose-dependent effects. Behavioural Neuroscience, 139(1), 45–58. https://doi.org/10.1037/bne0000550.
Pozdnyakova, N., et al. (2025). Chronic caffeine exposure alters anxiety, aggression, and spatial memory in rodents. Neuroscience Letters. Advance online publication.
Reissig, C. J., Strain, E. C., & Griffiths, R. R. (2009). Caffeinated energy drinks—A growing problem. Drug and Alcohol Dependence, 99(1–3), 1–10. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2008.08.001.
Roldán, G., et al. (2018). Energy drink and ethanol interactions: Effects on voluntary ethanol intake and blood ethanol concentrations in rats. Alcohol, 70, 39–47. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.alcohol.2018.01.005.
Roldán, M., et al. (2018). Red Bull® energy drink increases voluntary alcohol consumption in rats. Addiction Biology, 23(1), 116–125. https://doi.org/10.1111/adb.12560.
Schaffer, S. W., Ito, T., & Azuma, J. (2010). Clinical significance of taurine. Amino Acids, 38(1), 1–15. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00726-009-0265-3
Schultz, W. (2007). Behavioral dopamine signals. Trends in Neurosciences, 30(5), 203–210. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tins.2007.03.007.
Schultz, W. (2007). Multiple dopamine functions at different time courses. Annual Review of Neuroscience, 30, 259–288. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.neuro.28.061604.135722.
Seifert, S. M., et al. (2011). Health effects of energy drinks on children, adolescents, and young adults. Pediatrics, 127(3), 511–528. https://doi.org/10.1542/peds.2009-3592.
Seifert, S. M., Schaechter, J. L., Hershorin, E. R., & Lipshultz, S. E. (2011). Health effects of energy drinks on children, adolescents, and young adults. Pediatrics, 127(3), 511–528. https://doi.org/10.1542/peds.2009-3592.
Squeglia, L. M., Jacobus, J., & Tapert, S. F. (2014). The influence of substance use on adolescent brain development. Clinical EEG and Neuroscience, 45(1), 98–106. https://doi.org/10.1177/1550059413489577.
Squeglia, L. M., Tapert, S. F., Sullivan, E. V., Jacobus, J., Meloy, M. J., Rohlfing, T., & Pfefferbaum, A. (2014). Brain development in heavy-drinking adolescents. American Journal of Psychiatry, 171(5), 531–542. https://doi.org/10.1176/appi.ajp.2013.13070983.
Squire, L. R. (1992). Memory and the hippocampus: A synthesis from findings with rats, monkeys, and humans. Psychological Review, 99(2), 195–231. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-295X.99.2.195.
Valle, M., et al. (2018). Chronic energy drink exposure affects cognitive performance and neurochemistry in rats. Food and Chemical Toxicology, 118, 135–142. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fct.2018.05.010.
Vetreno, R. P., & Crews, F. T. (2015). Binge ethanol exposure during adolescence leads to persistent neuroimmune activation and behavioural dysfunction. Frontiers in Neuroscience, 9, 35. https://doi.org/10.3389/fnins.2015.00035.
Whishaw, I. Q., & Kolb, B. (2005). The behavior of the laboratory rat: A handbook with tests. Oxford University Press.
White, A. M. (2003). Effects of alcohol on human memory. Alcohol Research & Health, 27(2), 109–120. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/15535406/.
White, A. M. (2003). What happened? Alcohol, memory blackouts, and the brain. Alcohol Research & Health, 27(2), 186–196.
Wilens, T. E., et al. (2018). Alcohol use and academic performance in college students: The role of hippocampal structure. Journal of Studies on Alcohol and Drugs, 79(5), 679–688. https://doi.org/10.15288/jsad.2018.79.679.